Manual scavenging, the inhumane practice of manually cleaning, carrying, and disposing of human excreta, persists in India despite multiple legal bans and judicial directives. In 2025, the Supreme Court once again ordered a complete ban on manual scavenging and unsafe cleaning of sewers and septic tanks in six major cities. However, the government continues to deny the existence of manual scavenging and underreport related deaths. This investigative report uncovers the stark contrast between the government’s denial and the ground reality, analyzing the reasons behind the persistence of manual scavenging through data, testimonies, and comparative insights from other countries.
Historical Background of Manual Scavenging in India
Origins and Evolution
Manual scavenging in India has deep historical roots, tracing back to the caste system’s division of labor. Dalit communities, traditionally relegated to “untouchable” occupations, have been forced into manual scavenging for generations. In 1993, India enacted the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, marking the first legislative attempt to ban manual scavenging. However, due to weak enforcement, the practice continued. In 2013, the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act was passed, criminalizing manual scavenging and mandating rehabilitation for affected individuals.
Legal Framework and Judicial Interventions
- 1993 Act: The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, prohibited manual scavenging and the construction of dry latrines but lacked effective enforcement mechanisms.
- 2013 Act: The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, comprehensively banned manual scavenging, mandated rehabilitation, alternative employment, and the provision of protective equipment, and imposed penalties of up to ₹5 lakh and imprisonment for violators.
- Supreme Court Directives: In 2014, the Supreme Court declared manual scavenging a violation of fundamental rights under Article 21 (Right to Life). In 2023, the Court ordered an immediate halt to the practice and directed compensation of ₹30 lakh per death. In 2024, the Court criticized non-compliance and demanded accountability from city commissioners. In January 2025, the Court ordered a complete ban on manual scavenging and unsafe cleaning of sewers and septic tanks in six major cities, including Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad, and required CEOs of these cities to file affidavits detailing implementation by February 13, 2025.
The Government’s Denial and Ground Reality
The Government’s Denial
- No Reported Cases: On January 30, 2025, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment claimed in Parliament that no deaths from manual scavenging had been reported between January 2023 and October 2024.
- No Practice of Manual Scavenging: In July 2024, the government stated that no reports of manual scavenging practices had been received from districts.
- Reduction in Rehabilitation Funds: The National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE), launched in 2023–2024 to replace earlier rehabilitation schemes for manual scavengers, was initially allocated ₹97 crore in the 2023–2024 budget. However, the revised budget reduced this amount to just ₹30 crore. In 2025, the allocation increased to ₹117 crore. Yet, the government’s financial support remains insufficient to address the issue effectively.
Ground Reality
- Prevalence of Manual Scavenging: According to Safai Karmachari Andolan (SKA), manual scavenging persists on a large scale in states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Bihar. SKA data shows that from February 1, 2024, to July 23, 2024, 43 manual scavengers died. Additionally, dry latrines still exist in 36 districts across UP, MP, Bihar, Jharkhand, and J&K. In March 2025, SKA highlighted that despite the government’s claims, manual scavenging remains widespread. On March 16, 2025, three persons were forced to enter a manhole by the Delhi Jal Board in New Friends Colony, resulting in one death and two hospitalized individuals.
- High Death Toll: Between 2019 and 2023, 75–80 manual scavengers died annually due to toxic gas inhalation and accidents. In 2023, over 80 manual scavengers lost their lives. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra reported the highest number of deaths. In February 2024, three manual scavengers died inside a sewer in Kolkata while working without protective gear. In January 2024, a father and son died while cleaning a drain in Bengaluru without any safety measures. In December 2023, two men suffocated to death inside a sewer in Chennai due to exposure to toxic gases.
Reasons Behind the Persistence of Manual Scavenging
Caste-Based Discrimination
The overwhelming majority of manual scavengers belong to Dalit communities, subjected to systemic caste-based discrimination. Manual scavenging is deeply entrenched in the caste system, with Dalits being relegated to this dehumanizing occupation. Many state governments underreport the prevalence of manual scavenging to avoid accountability and liability.
Weak Enforcement of Laws
- Loopholes in Legal Definitions: States exploit the distinction between “manual scavenging” and “hazardous cleaning” to claim that manual scavenging no longer exists. For example, workers forced to clean sewers manually are labeled as engaged in “hazardous cleaning” to evade legal scrutiny.
- Lack of Mechanization: Despite Supreme Court directives mandating the use of machines and protective gear, mechanization remains absent. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) often fail to adopt mechanized cleaning methods, leaving workers vulnerable to hazardous conditions.
- Compensation Violations: The Supreme Court mandated ₹30 lakh compensation per death, but payments are rarely made.
Ineffective Rehabilitation Policies
- Insufficient Financial Support: Government rehabilitation schemes, such as the Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS) and NAMASTE, suffer from inadequate funding and poor implementation. Families of deceased workers struggle without financial security.
- Lack of Alternative Livelihood Opportunities: Rehabilitation programs fail to provide skill development and alternative employment opportunities for affected workers, leaving them with no choice but to continue manual scavenging.
Administrative Apathy
The government shifts responsibility for sanitation to states, citing it as a state subject. State governments misuse legal loopholes to deny the existence of manual scavenging. Bureaucratic inefficiency further undermines the implementation of rehabilitation programs. For instance, despite the Supreme Court’s 2023 order for an immediate halt to manual scavenging and the provision of ₹30 lakh compensation per death, many families have yet to receive compensation.
Testimonies and Interviews
Testimonies from Manual Scavengers
- A manual scavenger from Uttar Pradesh shared that he has been engaged in this work for over a decade. “We know it’s dangerous, but we have no other choice. No one else will hire us,” he said. He also revealed that they rarely receive protective equipment and often work without masks or gloves.
- A female manual scavenger from Bihar stated, “We clean dry latrines every day. The government says there are no dry latrines, but we are still doing this work. We are treated as untouchables and face discrimination everywhere.”
Interviews with Organizations
- Safai Karmachari Andolan (SKA): SKA’s national convener, Bezwada Wilson, emphasized that the government’s denial of manual scavenging is false and misleading. “Manual scavenging is prevalent on a large scale in states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Bihar. But the government is not ready to accept it,” he said. SKA has organized multiple protests to expose the government’s lies and demand an end to manual scavenging.
- Citizens for Justice and Peace (CJP): CJP’s research indicates that manual scavengers continue to face severe health hazards and socio-economic hardships due to inadequate rehabilitation efforts and weak enforcement mechanisms. The organization calls for stronger legal enforcement, public awareness campaigns, and rehabilitation initiatives to ensure justice and dignity for affected communities.
Interviews with Legal Experts
- Advocate Rajesh Kumar: “The government’s denial of manual scavenging violates the principle of justice. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, clearly prohibits manual scavenging and mandates rehabilitation. However, the government’s failure to enforce the law has rendered it ineffective.” He also pointed out that the government’s underreporting of deaths allows perpetrators to evade legal responsibility.
- Professor N. Sukumar: “Manual scavenging is not merely a legal issue but a profound social problem rooted in caste discrimination. Eliminating manual scavenging requires not only legal measures but also social change. The government must take strong action to eradicate caste-based discrimination and ensure equal rights for all citizens”.
Comparative Insights from Other Countries
United Kingdom
The UK’s Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974, mandates that no worker should enter confined spaces without protective equipment and safety protocols. Employers forcing workers into unsafe conditions face heavy fines and imprisonment. The UK has achieved significant progress in eliminating hazardous manual cleaning through strict legal enforcement and technological innovation.
United States
The U.S. employs advanced automated sewer maintenance systems, such as CCTV sewer inspection technology and self-cleaning pipelines, minimizing the need for human entry. The U.S. Department of Labor mandates periodic skill training for sewer maintenance workers. Government-funded worker training ensures that sanitation workers are equipped with necessary skills and knowledge.
Japan
Japan boasts advanced wastewater treatment plants that process waste through high-tech filtration systems, eliminating the need for manual handling. The country has adopted AI in waste management, enabling city-wide prediction of blockages and maintenance needs, thereby preventing emergency manual cleaning situations.
Singapore
Singapore’s pneumatic waste disposal system uses underground vacuum pipes to transport waste, reducing manual cleaning. Sanitation work is highly respected, with workers receiving competitive salaries and societal recognition for their essential contributions.
Policy Recommendations and Outlook
Strengthening Legal Enforcement
- Criminal Prosecution: Prosecute officials who permit manual scavenging and hold them criminally accountable.
- Independent Monitoring: Establish independent monitoring mechanisms to prevent false affidavits and manipulated data.
- Empowering Regulatory Bodies: Grant the National Commission for Safai Karamcharis (NCSK) enforcement powers to oversee compliance with laws and policies.
Advancing Mechanization
- Penalizing ULBs: Impose penalties on ULBs that fail to adopt mechanized cleaning methods.
- Investing in Technology: Increase budget allocation for robotic cleaners and smart sewerage management systems.
- Regulating Private Contractors: Enforce strict regulations on private contractors to prevent illegal employment of manual scavengers.
Improving Rehabilitation
- Timely Compensation: Ensure timely disbursement of compensation to families of deceased workers.
- Alternative Employment Guarantees: Provide guaranteed alternative employment, educational scholarships, and skill development opportunities.
- Social Awareness Campaigns: Launch campaigns to eliminate the caste-based stigma associated with sanitation work.
Enhancing Judicial Oversight
- Supreme Court Monitoring: Establish independent committees to monitor state compliance with Supreme Court directives.
- Incentivizing Progress: Reward states that perform well in eradicating manual scavenging.
- Regular Audits: Conduct regular audits of municipalities to ensure mechanization is implemented.
Case Studies and Success Stories
Case Study 1: Delhi Jal Board
In March 2025, three persons were forced to enter a manhole by the Delhi Jal Board in New Friends Colony, resulting in one death and two hospitalized individuals. Despite the Supreme Court’s directives, the Delhi Jal Board failed to adopt mechanized cleaning methods, leaving workers vulnerable to hazardous conditions. The incident highlights the government’s failure to enforce legal protections for manual scavengers.
Case Study 2: Bengaluru
In May 2024, a father and son died while cleaning a drain in Bengaluru without any safety measures. The BengaluruBrush, an NGO working to eradicate manual scavenging, reported that the city continues to rely on manual cleaning despite the availability of mechanized alternatives. The incident underscores the need for stronger enforcement of legal protections and increased mechanization of sanitation work.
Success Story: Kerala
Kerala has made significant progress in eradicating manual scavenging through a combination of legal enforcement, mechanization, and social awareness campaigns. The state government has invested in advanced sewerage systems and provides alternative employment opportunities for manual scavengers. Kerala’s efforts have resulted in a substantial reduction in manual scavenging incidents and improved living conditions for affected communities.
The Role of Media and Public Opinion
Media Coverage and Its Impact
Media coverage of manual scavenging has played a crucial role in raising public awareness and pressuring the government to take action. Investigative reports and news stories have highlighted the inhumane conditions faced by manual scavengers, garnering national attention and support for policy reforms. However, some media outlets have been criticized for biased reporting and sensationalism, which may exacerbate social divisions and misunderstandings.
Public Opinion and Social Movements
Public opinion on manual scavenging is divided. While many support the eradication of this practice, others remain indifferent or unaware of its existence. Social movements advocating for the rights of manual scavengers have emerged in recent years, demanding better enforcement of laws and an end to caste-based discrimination. These movements have gained momentum on social media, where activists share their experiences and call for greater accountability from institutions and the government.
Economic and Social Implications
Economic Impact on Manual Scavengers
Manual scavenging has severe economic consequences for affected individuals and communities. The lack of alternative livelihood opportunities forces manual scavengers to continue this dehumanizing work, perpetuating cycles of poverty and marginalization. Rehabilitation programs often fail to provide adequate financial support and skill development opportunities, leaving manual scavengers with limited economic prospects.
Social Impact and Community Perception
Manual scavenging reinforces caste-based discrimination and social inequality. Dalit communities, predominantly engaged in manual scavenging, face systemic exclusion and prejudice. The practice perpetuates the notion of “untouchability” and undermines efforts to achieve social cohesion and justice. Eradicating manual scavenging requires not only legal and policy reforms but also a transformation in societal attitudes toward caste and labor.
Legal and Constitutional Challenges
Legal Battles and Court Cases
Manual scavenging has faced several legal challenges over the years. The Mandal case (1992) and the Indra Sawhney case (1992) are two landmark judgments that upheld the constitutionality of reservations while imposing certain limits and conditions. In recent years, there have been several court cases related to the implementation of manual scavenging laws.
In the 2018 case of Jarnail Singh vs. State of Haryana, the Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity of the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013. The court emphasized the need for strict enforcement of the law and mandated compensation for families of deceased workers.
Constitutional Limits and Debates
The Constitution of India guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, including the Right to Life and Dignity under Article 21. However, the persistent practice of manual scavenging violates these rights, highlighting the need for stronger legal and policy measures. The government’s denial of manual scavenging and underreporting of related deaths raise questions about accountability and transparency in governance.
Future Prospects and Reforms
Proposed Reforms and Policy Changes
Several reforms have been proposed to improve the implementation of manual scavenging laws and address the socio-economic challenges faced by affected communities. These include strengthening legal enforcement, advancing mechanization of sanitation work, improving rehabilitation programs, and enhancing judicial oversight.
The government has introduced initiatives such as the National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE) to promote mechanized cleaning and rehabilitation of manual scavengers. However, these programs require increased funding and effective implementation to achieve their goals.
Long-Term Outlook and Aspirations
The long-term success of efforts to eradicate manual scavenging depends on the effective implementation of policies, the elimination of caste-based discrimination, and the creation of a more inclusive and equitable society. It is hoped that through continued efforts and reforms, India can achieve the goal of a manual scavenging-free society, ensuring dignity and justice for all citizens.
Conclusion
Despite legal bans and judicial directives, manual scavenging persists in India, reflecting systemic failures and social injustice. The government’s denial of the issue exacerbates the problem, leaving manual scavengers in a precarious situation. Eliminating manual scavenging requires strong legal enforcement, mechanization of sanitation work, effective rehabilitation policies, and enhanced judicial oversight. Only through decisive government action, administrative commitment, and public accountability can this inhumane practice be eradicated, allowing manual scavengers to live with dignity and freedom.
*You May Be interested in Reading this investigative piece by the same author, “India’s Broken Quota System: How Reserved Categories Still Face Discrimination in Top Institutions – A Hard-Hitting Investigation“.
*Learn More About The Author Here.
